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Excerpts from the ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS AND CODE OF CONDUCT,
©2002 American Psychological Association.
Excerpted here from
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html#standards
The items in large print above will be discussed in detail; other codes
citations are also included for collateral reference during our discussion.
Note that items below in red are outright
prohibitions, while the remaining items provide conceptual structures for
interpretation of situations, decision making, and guidance for appropriate
action.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
 This
section consists of General Principles. General Principles, as opposed to
Ethical Standards, are aspirational in nature. Their intent is to guide and
inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession.
General Principles, in contrast to Ethical Standards, do not represent
obligations and should not form the basis for imposing sanctions. Relying upon
General Principles for either of these reasons distorts both their meaning and
purpose.
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care
to do no harm. In their professional actions, psychologists seek to
safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they interact professionally
and other affected persons, and the welfare of animal subjects of research. When
conflicts occur among psychologists' obligations or concerns, they attempt to
resolve these conflicts in a responsible fashion that avoids or minimizes harm.
Because psychologists' scientific and professional judgments and actions may
affect the lives of others, they are alert to and guard against personal,
financial, social, organizational, or political factors that might lead to
misuse of their influence. Psychologists strive to be aware of the possible
effect of their own physical and mental health on their ability to help those
with whom they work.
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Psychologists establish relationships of trust with those with whom they
work. They are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to
society and to the specific communities in which they work. Psychologists uphold
professional standards of conduct, clarify their professional roles and
obligations, accept appropriate responsibility for their behavior, and seek to
manage conflicts of interest that could lead to exploitation or harm.
Psychologists consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other professionals and
institutions to the extent needed to serve the best interests of those with whom
they work. They are concerned about the ethical compliance of their colleagues'
scientific and professional conduct. Psychologists strive to contribute a
portion of their professional time for little or no compensation or personal
advantage.
Principle C: Integrity
Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in the
science, teaching, and practice of psychology. In these activities psychologists
do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or intentional
misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive to keep their promises and to
avoid unwise or unclear commitments. In situations in which deception may be
ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have
a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and
their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects
that arise from the use of such techniques.
Principle D: Justice
Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice entitle all persons to
access to and benefit from the contributions of psychology and to equal
quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted by
psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable judgment and take precautions
to ensure that their potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, and
the limitations of their expertise do not lead to or condone unjust practices.
Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the
rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the
rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair
autonomous decision making. Psychologists are aware of and respect cultural,
individual, and role differences, including those based on age, gender, gender
identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual
orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status and consider these
factors when working with members of such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate
the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not
knowingly participate in or condone activities of others based upon such
prejudices.
ETHICAL STANDARDS
1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other
Governing Legal Authority
If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or
other governing legal authority, psychologists make known their commitment to
the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the conflict. If the conflict is
unresolvable via such means, psychologists may adhere to the requirements of the
law, regulations, or other governing legal authority.
1.03 Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands
If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for
whom they are working conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the
nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and to
the extent feasible, resolve the conflict in a way that permits adherence to the
Ethics Code.
3.04 Avoiding Harm
Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients,
students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others
with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and
unavoidable.
3.05 Multiple Relationships
(a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a professional role
with a person and (1) at the same time is in another role with the same person,
(2) at the same time is in a relationship with a person closely associated with
or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional
relationship, or (3) promises to enter into another relationship in the future
with the person or a person closely associated with or related to the person.
A psychologist
refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationship
could reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist's objectivity,
competence, or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a
psychologist, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person with whom
the professional relationship exists.
Multiple
relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk
exploitation or harm are not unethical.
(b) If a
psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a potentially harmful
multiple relationship has arisen, the psychologist takes reasonable steps to
resolve it with due regard for the best interests of the affected person and
maximal compliance with the Ethics Code.
(c) When
psychologists are required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary
circumstances to serve in more than one role in judicial or administrative
proceedings, at the outset they clarify role expectations and the extent of
confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur. (See also Standards
3.04, Avoiding Harm, and
3.07, Third-Party Requests for Services.)
3.06 Conflict of Interest
Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional role when personal,
scientific, professional, legal, financial, or other interests or relationships
could reasonably be expected to (1) impair their objectivity, competence, or
effectiveness in performing their functions as psychologists or (2) expose the
person or organization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or
exploitation.
3.08 Exploitative Relationships
Psychologists
do not exploit
persons over whom they have supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such as
clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, and employees.
(See also Standards
3.05, Multiple Relationships;
6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements;
6.05, Barter With Clients/Patients;
7.07, Sexual Relationships With Students and Supervisees;
10.05, Sexual Intimacies With Current Therapy Clients/Patients;
10.06, Sexual Intimacies With Relatives or Significant Others of Current Therapy
Clients/Patients;
10.07, Therapy With Former Sexual Partners; and
10.08, Sexual Intimacies With Former Therapy Clients/Patients.)
3.09 Cooperation
With Other Professionals
When
indicated and professionally appropriate, psychologists cooperate with other
professionals in order to serve their clients/patients effectively and
appropriately. (See also Standard
4.05, Disclosures.)
3.11 Psychological Services Delivered To or Through
Organizations
(a) Psychologists delivering services to or through organizations provide
information beforehand to clients and when appropriate those directly affected
by the services about (1) the nature and objectives of the services, (2) the
intended recipients, (3) which of the individuals are clients, (4) the
relationship the psychologist will have with each person and the organization,
(5) the probable uses of services provided and information obtained, (6) who
will have access to the information, and (7) limits of confidentiality. As soon
as feasible, they provide information about the results and conclusions of such
services to appropriate persons.
(b) If
psychologists will be precluded by law or by organizational roles from providing
such information to particular individuals or groups, they so inform those
individuals or groups at the outset of the service.
4.06 Consultations
When
consulting with colleagues, (1) psychologists do not disclose confidential
information that reasonably could lead to the identification of a
client/patient, research participant, or other person or organization with whom
they have a confidential relationship unless they have obtained the prior
consent of the person or organization or the disclosure cannot be avoided, and
(2) they disclose information only to the extent necessary to achieve the
purposes of the consultation. (See also Standard
4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality.)
6.05 Barter With Clients/Patients
Barter is
the acceptance of goods, services, or other nonmonetary remuneration from
clients/patients in return for psychological services. Psychologists may barter
only if (1) it is not clinically contraindicated, and (2) the resulting
arrangement is not exploitative. (See also Standards
3.05, Multiple Relationships, and
6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements.)
7.07
Sexual Relationships With Students and Supervisees
Psychologists
do not engage in sexual
relationships with students or supervisees who are in their department, agency,
or training center or over whom psychologists have or are likely to have
evaluative authority. (See also Standard
3.05, Multiple Relationships.)
10.02 Therapy Involving Couples or Families
(a)
When psychologists agree to provide services to several persons who have a
relationship (such as spouses, significant others, or parents and children),
they take reasonable steps to clarify at the outset (1) which of the individuals
are clients/patients and (2) the relationship the psychologist will have with
each person. This clarification includes the psychologist's role and the
probable uses of the services provided or the information obtained. (See also
Standard
4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality.)
(b) If it
becomes apparent that psychologists may be called on to perform potentially
conflicting roles (such as family therapist and then witness for one party in
divorce proceedings), psychologists take reasonable steps to clarify and modify,
or withdraw from, roles appropriately. (See also Standard
3.05c, Multiple Relationships.)
10.05 Sexual Intimacies With Current Therapy
Clients/Patients
Psychologists
do not engage in sexual
intimacies
with current therapy clients/patients.
10.06 Sexual Intimacies With Relatives
or Significant Others of Current Therapy Clients/Patients
Psychologists
do not engage in sexual
intimacies with individuals they know to be close relatives, guardians, or
significant others of current clients/patients. Psychologists do not terminate
therapy to circumvent this standard.
10.07 Therapy With Former Sexual
Partners
Psychologists
do not accept as therapy
clients/patients
persons with whom they have engaged in sexual intimacies.
10.08 Sexual Intimacies With Former
Therapy Clients/Patients
(a) Psychologists
do not engage in sexual
intimacies with former clients/patients for at least two years after cessation
or termination of therapy.
(b)
Psychologists
do not engage in sexual
intimacies
with former clients/patients even after a two-year interval except in the most
unusual circumstances. Psychologists who engage in such activity after the two
years following cessation or termination of therapy and of having no sexual
contact with the former client/patient
bear the burden
of demonstrating that there has been no exploitation, in light of all relevant
factors, including (1) the amount of time that has passed since therapy
terminated; (2) the nature, duration, and intensity of the therapy; (3) the
circumstances of termination; (4) the client's/patient's personal history; (5)
the client's/patient's current mental status; (6) the likelihood of adverse
impact on the client/patient; and (7) any statements or actions made by the
therapist during the course of therapy suggesting or inviting the possibility of
a posttermination sexual or romantic relationship with the client/patient. (See
also Standard
3.05, Multiple Relationships.)
10.09
Interruption of Therapy
When entering into employment or contractual relationships, psychologists make
reasonable efforts to provide for orderly and appropriate resolution of
responsibility for client/patient care in the event that the employment or
contractual relationship ends, with paramount consideration given to the welfare
of the client/patient. (See also Standard
3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services.)
10.10 Terminating Therapy
(a) Psychologists terminate therapy when it becomes reasonably clear that the
client/patient no longer needs the service, is not likely to benefit, or is
being harmed by continued service.
(b)
Psychologists may terminate therapy when threatened or otherwise endangered by
the client/patient or another person with whom the client/patient has a
relationship.
(c) Except
where precluded by the actions of clients/patients or third-party payors, prior
to termination psychologists provide pretermination counseling and suggest
alternative service providers as appropriate
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